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@Article{jair02, 
  author = 	 {Gal A. Kaminka  and David V. Pynadath and Milind Tambe}, 
  title = 	 {Monitoring Teams by Overhearing: A Multi-Agent Plan Recognition Approach}, 
  journal = 	 {Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research}, 
  year = 	 {2002}, 
  volume = 	 {17}, 
  abstract = { Recent years are seeing an increasing need for on-line monitoring of 
teams of cooperating agents, e.g., for visualization, or performance tracking. However, in monitoring  deployed teams, we often cannot rely on the agents to always communicate their state 
to the monitoring system. This paper presents a non-intrusive 
approach to monitoring by overhearing, where the monitored team's state is inferred (via  plan-recognition) from teammembers' routine communications, exchanged as part of their coordinated  task execution, and observed (overheard) by the monitoring system. Key challenges in  
this approach include the demanding run-time requirements of monitoring, the scarceness of  observations (increasing monitoring uncertainty), and the need to scale-up monitoring to address  potentially large teams. To address these, we present a set of complementary novel techniques,  exploiting knowledge of the social structures and procedures in the monitored team: (i) 
an efficient probabilistic plan-recognition algorithm, well-suited for processing communications as  observations; (ii) an approach to exploiting knowledge of the team's social behavior 
to predict future observations during execution (reducing monitoring uncertainty); 
and (iii) monitoring algorithms that trade expressivity for scalability, representing only certain  useful monitoring hypotheses, but allowing for any number of agents and their  
different activities to be represented in a single coherent entity. We present an empirical  evaluation of these techniques, in combination and apart, in monitoring a deployed team 
of agents, running on machines physically distributed across the country, and engaged in complex,  dynamic task execution. We also compare the performance of these techniques 
to human expert and novice monitors, and show that the techniques presented at capable of monitoring  at human-expert levels, despite the difficulty of the task. 
}, 
  wwwnote = {}, 
  pages = {83--135},
}